The use of magnets to restore or improve health has a long and somewhat checkered history [1, 5, 39, 49]. Cleopatra is claimed to have used a magnetic lodestone to maintain her youthful appearance. Mesmerism, which came to be associated in the late 1700s with "animal magnetism" (hypnosis), by word association, has cast an air of charlatanism on the medical use of magnets. However, more recently, a variety of respected researchers have published good scientific studies in the medical literature on the use of static/permanent magnets (S/PM) and pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) for a variety of conditions, including: Bell's palsy [14], bone injuries [3, 10, 11, 15], colon surgery [30], depression [8], foot ulcerations [41], multiple sclerosis [38], nerve injuries [4], osteoarthritis [42], peripheral neuropathies [47, 48], oral lichen ruber planus [23], post polio pain syndrome [44], schizophrenia [51], skin wounds [33,34], synovitis [46], tendon inflammation [24], and vascular surgery [28]. One recent study of S/PM used for chronic low back pain did not demonstrate any benefits [52]. Preliminary findings suggest that PEMF may even have application in the treatment of malaria although confirmatory research is still needed [53]. 

An easily demonstrable physiologic effect of biomagnets is their enhancement of blood flow. These changes in blood flow can be easily and graphically demonstrated through temperature changes on thermography. For a before and after visual of the effects of magnets on blood flow visit the following website - http://home1.gte.net/infrared/ba1.htm

The interesting thing to observe from the images on this web site is that the blood flow is enhanced on both sides of the body, not just where the magnet is placed. Such a "non-local" effect is hard to explain with the Western biomedical model of the body, which is based entirely on anatomy and biochemistry. Firing of sensory nerve action potentials can be blocked by magnetic fields [6]. This may be why magnetic fields seem to alleviate symptoms in a variety of conditions associated with chronic pain. As dramatic and important as the effect on blood flow and nerves can be, perhaps even more important is the induction of microcurrents (movement of electrons) in living tissue by magnetic fields. 

Several researchers have demonstrated that abnormal physiology is accompanied by abnormal electrical activity [1, 2, 9, 31] and that restoration of normal electrical activity through artificial means helps restore normal physiology [1, 2, 31] - the use of D.C. electric stimulators or PEMF to treat non-union fractures is a case in point. Clinically the use of PEMF to induce microcurrents in living tissue is as effective as the direct use of currents. Thus, the use of biomagnets is a form of "electromedicine" or "energy medicine" which helps facilitate restoration of normal physiology by correcting electrical imbalances. There has been a common misconception that only PEMF will cause current induction and that S/PM will not induce currents in living tissue because there needs to be movement of the magnetic field for current induction to occur. In fact there are studies demonstrating that both PEMF and S/PM have similar effects [10, 11, 33]. This is probably because there is movement of charged particles within living tissue even when the magnetic field is not moving or changing. It therefore does not appear to matter whether the movement is in the tissue or in the magnetic field - in either case there is current induction. When currents are induced in living creatures, the currents will tend to follow the paths of least resistance. The paths of least resistance have been quantified and characterized extensively and they correspond with the acupuncture points and meridians [17, 18, 21, 32, 36, 37, 40]. It is therefore no surprise that both electricity and biomagnets are used extensively and with much success in the field of acupuncture. 

Biomagnets differ from refrigerator door magnets or industrial magnets in several ways. Aside from the actual shape, size and outward physical characteristics biomagnets have been designed specifically with a strength, (measured in Gauss), which falls within a biologic "therapeutic window." A typical strength range for biomagnets is from 400 - 4,000 Gauss. Weaker magnets aren't very effective. Stronger (neodymium) magnets can be used but occasionally the use of these stronger magnets can cause problems. The use of strong magnets near the head has been associated with memory and concentration problems in some patients. Also, it can hurt if your skin is pinched suddenly by the attraction of two strong neodymium magnets. General contraindications to using biomagnets include pregnancy [12, 25], or any implanted electrical device, such as a pacemaker, in the body. If used near pacemakers or other electrical biomedical devices magnets can cause a potentially serious malfunction. In general it's best to have a diagnosis before using biomagnets - to know what you're treating. It is sometimes possible to mask the symptoms of a potentially life-threatening condition with the pain relieving properties of biomagnets. In the case of simple sprains or common self-limited day to day aches and pains seek medical attention if the symptoms are worsening or not resolving in a couple of weeks. 

The other variable that may be taken into account in designing biomagnets is the orientation of the poles with respect to the body. While there can be different biologic effects caused by a "North" pole field and a "South" pole field, currently there does not appear to be adequate scientific data to precisely tell what the differences are and what their clinical relevance might be. There have been some differences in the use of terminology to describe the different poles but the prevailing dogma for years has been that the North Pole has an inhibitory effect and that the South Pole has a stimulatory effect on growth of micro-organisms and on growth of tumor cells. Therefore most proponents of magnet therapy advocate always using the North Pole facing toward the body. In reality though the electrical behavior of tumors is erratic and unpredictable [31]. It is therefore an oversimplification to state that only the North Pole should be used toward the body. If polarity is to be used optimally in magnetic therapy it would require precise electrical measurements to be taken in the body at frequent intervals and the polarity and placement of the magnets would then have to be adjusted accordingly. On the other hand, any time two or more magnets are used in close proximity they create a bipolar or multipolar field for the body because of the interaction of the magnetic fields. The use of multipolar fields still provides the benefits of current induction, and enhanced blood flow without having to worry about whether the right polarity is being used since the presence of both North and South polarity creates polar neutrality. 

Biomagnets are being used extensively by professional athletes and by the general public for a variety of ailments with varying degrees of success. Due to a lack of training in "energy medicine," sparse research and ample skepticism, relatively few physicians are using biomagnets with their patients. The discrepancy between patient use and physician awareness is fertile ground for research. Magnetic fields have very quantifiable and predictable physical (energetic) properties and the human body is subject to the same laws of physics as the rest of nature. 

Historically physics has been dominated by Newtonian principles, which describe mechanical interactions. Revolutionary changes have occurred in the field of physics with the inclusion of quantum theory, which describes energetic interactions. It is up to physicians to catch up with the physicists and expand our understanding of the human body from a purely mechanical/biochemical system to include the intricacies of energetic interactions. When the medical community fully grasps this fundamental concept and adequately addresses the interconnectedness of physiology and energy we can expect to see revolutionary changes. Biomagnets are at the leading edge of this change and are helping physicians rethink how the human body works. Stay tuned! 

REFERENCES/ABSTRACTS

1. Becker Robert O: Cross Currents - The Perils of Electropollution, The Promise of Electromedicine. Los Angeles; Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc., 1990. 

2. Borgens RB, Robinson KR, Vanable JW Jr, McGinnis ME: Electrical Fields in Vertebrate Repair. New York; Alan R. Liss Inc., 1989. 

3. Bruce GK; Howlett CR; Huckstep RL: Effect of a static magnetic field on fracture healing in a rabbit radius. Preliminary results. Clin Orthop 1987 Sep;(222):300-6 

Abstract:
To ascertain what effect a static magnetic force has on a healing fracture, samarium cobalt magnets were implanted adjacent to induced radial fractures in adult rabbits. A magnetic field of 220-260 G was generated at the fracture site. The radii were allowed to heal for four weeks and the contralateral fractured bones acted as controls. Healing bone units were assessed microscopically and mechanically. Significantly greater forces (p less than 0.01) were required to break those bone units exposed to magnetic fields. However, no significant difference was found when comparing the longitudinal midcallus areas from magnetized and nonmagnetized limbs. 

4. Byers JM, Clark KF, Thompson GC: Effect of pulsed electromagnetic stimulation on facial nerve regeneration. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1998 Apr; 124(4):383-9. 

Abstract:
OBJECTIVE: To determine if exposure to electromagnetic fields influences regeneration of the transected facial nerve in the rat. DESIGN AND METHODS: The left facial nerve was transected in the tympanic section of the fallopian canal in 24 rats randomly assigned to 2 groups. The cut ends of the facial nerve were reapproximated without sutures within the fallopian canal to maximize the potential for regeneration. Rats in the experimental group (n= 12) were then exposed to pulsed electromagnetic stimulation (0.4 millitesla at 120 Hz) for 4 hours per day, 5 days per week, for 8 weeks. Rats in the control group (n=12) were handled in an identical manner without pulsed electromagnetic stimulation. Four other rats were given sham operations in which all surgical procedures were carried out except for the actual nerve transection. Two of these rats were placed in each group. Nerve regeneration was evaluated using electroneurography (compound action potentials), force of whisker and eyelid movements, and voluntary facial movements before and at 2-week intervals after transection. Histological evaluation was performed at 10 weeks after transection. Each dependent variable was analyzed using a 2-way analysis of variance with 1 between variable (groups) and 1 within repeated measures variable (days after transection). RESULTS: Statistical analysis indicated that N1 (the negative deflection of depolarization phase of the muscle and/or nerve fibers) area, N1 amplitude, and N1 duration, as well as absolute amplitude of the compound action potentials, were all significantly greater 2 weeks after transection in the experimental than in the control group of rats. The force of eye and whisker movements after electrical stimulation was statistically greater in the experimental group of rats 4 weeks after transection. Voluntary eye movements in the experimental group were significantly better at 5 and 10 weeks, while whisker movements were better at 3 and 10 weeks. There was no statistical difference between the 2 groups for any histological variable. CONCLUSION: Results of this study indicate that pulsed electromagnetic stimulation enhances early regeneration of the transected facial nerve in rats. 

5. Cambridge NA. Electrical apparatus used in medicine before 1900. Proc R Soc Med 1977 Sep;70(9):635-41 

Abstract:
The Ancients had at their disposal torpedo fish, amber and magnets. It was not until the sixteenth century that ideas on the strange behavior of amber and magnets were put forward. The eighteenth century saw the application of Newton's theories of matter and the introduction of the electrostatic machine, Galvanism and Volta's battery. In the nineteenth century there was extensive application of electricity in medical practice, with the development of electrocautery apparatus and illuminated cystoscopes, the pioneering of the electrocardiogram and the discovery of X-rays. 

6. Cavopol AV; Wamil AW; Holcomb RR; McLean MJ. Measurement and analysis of static magnetic fields that block action potentials in cultured neurons. Bioelectromagnetics 1995;16(3):197-206 

Abstract:
To characterize the properties of static magnetic fields on firing of action potentials (AP) by sensory neurons in cell culture, we developed a mathematical formalism based on the expression for the magnetic field of a single circular current loop. The calculated fields fit closely the field measurements taken with a Hall effect gaussmeter. The biological effect induced by different arrays of permanent magnets depended principally on the spatial variation of the fields, quantified by the value of the gradient of the field magnitude. Magnetic arrays of different sizes (macroarray: four center-charged neodymium magnets of approximately 14 mm diameter; microarray; four micromagnets of the same material but of approximately 0.4 mm diameter) allowed comparison of fields with similar gradients but different intensities at the cell position. These two arrays had a common gradient value of approximately 1 mT/mm and blocked > 70% of AP. Alternatively, cells placed in a field strength of approximately 0.2 mT and a gradient of approximately 0.02 mT/mm produced by the macroarray resulted in no significant reduction of firing; a microarray field of the same strength but with a higher gradient of approximately 1.5 mT/mm caused approximately 80% AP blockade. The experimental threshold gradient and the calculated threshold field intensity for blockade of action potentials by these arrays were estimated to be approximately 0.02 mT/mm and approximately 0.02 mT, respectively, In conclusion, these findings suggest that spatial variation of the magnetic field is the principal cause of AP blockade in dorsal root ganglia in vitro. 

7. Clejan S , Ide C , Walker C , Wolf E , Corb M , Beckman B. Electromagnetic field induced changes in lipid second messengers. J Lipid Mediat Cell Signal 1996 May;13(3):301-24 

Abstract:
Initial studies with a human hematopoietic cell line, TF-1, suggest multifarious effects of electromagnetic fields on lipid signal transduction. We have examined the effects of pulsed magnetic fields (2 T, 84 microseconds zero-to-peak haversine, 91 V/m induced electric field) on the cell cycle by flow cytometry. A 31% increase of cells in the G1 phase occurred concurrently with a 35% decrease of cells in S-phase, which suggests that doses of 30 or 40 pulses have an anti-proliferative effect. Changes in the lipid second messengers, diacylglycerol (DAG) and phosphatidic acid (PA) with stimuli of 2 T intensity were also dependent on the number of pulses. DAG production doubled with 30 pulses and tripled with 40 pulses, and PA levels were reduced to one third and one tenth of the original levels. Phospholipase D (PLD) up-regulation was assessed directly by the capacity of PLD to catalyze transphosphatidylation in the presence of alcohol. [3H]Phosphatidylethanol formed rapidly and continued to increase with concomitant decreases in [3H]PA and parallel generation of [3H]DAG. Propranolol, an inhibitor of PA phosphohydrolase, inhibited the formation of DAG in a dose-dependent manner with a marked increase in PA production. Examination of the kinetics of formation of [3H]choline and [3H]phosphocholine at different times after stimulation showed a rapid and consistent increase in [3H]choline, whereas [3H]phosphocholine increase was evident only 60 min after stimulation. Magnetic exposure also caused a shift in some molecular species patterns of DAG and PA which could be correlated with phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine molecular species decreases. Therefore, we propose that the PC-PLC pathway may be temporarily inactivated for a short period of time by exposure to pulsed stimuli, and the PC-PLD pathway is up-regulated based on: (1) cellular release of [3H]choline; (2) rapid intracellular formation of [3H]PA followed by [3H]DAG; (3)active transphosphatidylation; and (4) blockade of DAG formation by propranolol.

8. Conca A, Koppi S, Konig P, Swoboda E, Krecke N: Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a novel antidepressive strategy? Neuropsychobiology 1996; 34(4):204-7. 

Abstract:
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a well-established diagnostic probe in neurological practice. The increasing knowledge of biological mechanisms in electroconvulsive therapy presents a clear case for studying the applicability of TMS as a therapeutic tool in psychiatry. Based on the results of our pilot study showing a possible antidepressive effect of TMS, we conducted a controlled clinical trial on patients affected by major depression (DSM-III-R). Group 1 (n = 12) underwent TMS as add-on therapy to standard antidepressive medication, while group 2 (n = 12) was treated only with antidepressive medication. Already after the third add-on TMS session, a statistically significantly greater remission of depressive symptoms occurred in the patients of group 1 (p = 0.003). This statistically significant difference between the groups became even more marked on the last day of the study (p = 0.001, Wilcoxon). The results and further implications of TMS in psychiatric disorders are discussed. 

9. Cuzick J; Holland R; Barth V; Davies R; Faupel M; Fentiman I; Frischbier HJ; LaMarque JL; Merson M; Sacchini V; Vanel D; Veronesi U. Electropotential measurements as a new diagnostic modality for breast cancer. Lancet 1998 Aug 1;352(9125):359-63 

Abstract:
BACKGROUND: Proliferative changes in breast epithelium are an intrinsic aspect in the development of breast cancer, and result in regions of epithelial electrical depolarization within the breast parenchyma, which can extend to the skin surface. Diagnostic information might be obtained from a non-imaging and non-invasive test based on skin-surface electropotentials. METHODS: In 661 women, scheduled for open biopsy at eight European centres, we studied whether measurements of breast electrical activity with surface sensors could distinguish benign from malignant breast disease. A depolarization index was developed. RESULTS: We found a highly significant trend of progressive electrical changes according to the proliferative characteristics of the biopsied tissue. Discriminatory information was obtained in both premenopausal and postmenopausal women, and the index was not related to age. The best test performances were for women with palpable lesions. The median index was 0.398 for non-proliferative benign lesions, 0.531 for proliferative benign lesions, and 0.644 for cancer (ductal carcinoma-in- situ and invasive). A specificity of 55% was obtained at 90% sensitivity for women with palpable lesions when a discriminant based on age and the depolarization index was used. INTERPRETATION: This new modality may have diagnostic value, especially in reducing the number of unnecessary diagnostic tests among women with inconclusive findings on physical examination. Understanding and control of the biological variability of these electrical phenomena will be important in the improvement of this test. Studies in populations with a lower cancer prevalence are needed to assess further the diagnostic value of this approach. 

10. Darendeliler MA, Darendeliler A, Sinclair PM: Effects of static magnetic and pulsed electromagnetic fields on bone healing. Int J Orthodon Orthognath Surg 1997; 12(1):43-53.

Abstract:
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the healing pattern of an experimentally induced osteotomy in Hartley guinea pigs in the presence of static magnetic and pulsed electromagnetic fields. The sample consisted of 30 Hartley guinea pigs 2 weeks of age divided into 3 groups: pulsed electromagnetic, static magnetic, and control. An osteotomy was performed in the mandibular postgonial area in all groups under general anesthesia. During the experimental period of 9 days, the animals were kept in experiment cages 8 hours per day, the first two groups being in the presence of pulsed electromagnetic and static magnetic field, respectively. Based on histologic results, both static and pulsed electromagnetic fields seemed to accelerate the rate of bone repair when compared to the control group. The osteotomy sites in the control animals consisted of connective tissue, while new bone had filled the osteotomy areas in both magnetic field groups. 

11. Darendeliler MA, Sinclair PM, Kusy RP: The effects of samarium-cobalt magnets and pulsed electromagnetic fields on tooth movement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1995 Jun; 107(6);578-88. 

Abstract:
The purpose of this study was to determine whether the application of either samarium cobalt magnets or pulsed electromagnetic fields could increase the rate and amount of orthodontic tooth movement observed in guinea pigs. In addition, the objective was to evaluate the effect of a magnetic field on bony physiology and metabolism and to monitor for possible systemic side effects. Fifteen grams of laterally directed orthodontic force were applied to move the maxillary central incisors of a sample of 18 young male Hartley guinea pigs divided into three groups: group 1, an orthodontic coil spring was used to move the incisors; group 2, a pair of samarium-cobalt magnets provided the tooth moving force; and group 3, a coil spring was used in combination with a pulsed electromagnetic field. The results showed that both the static magnetic field produced by the samarium-cobalt magnets and the pulsed electromagnetic field used in combination with the coil spring were successful in increasing the rate of tooth movement over that produced by the coil springs alone. The mechanism producing this effect appears to have involved a reduction in the "lag" phase often seen in orthodontic tooth movement. Both magnetically stimulated groups also showed increases in both the organization and amount of new bone deposited in the area of tension between the orthodontically moved maxillary incisors. 

12. Espinar A , Piera V , Carmona A , Guerrero JM. Histological changes during development of the cerebellum in the chick embryo exposed to a static magnetic field. Bioelectromagnetics 1997;18(1):36-46 

Abstract:
Few studies have been performed to evaluate the ultrastructural changes that exposure to static magnetic fields (SMF) can cause to the processes of cell migration and differentiation in the cerebellum during development. Thus, we have studied the development of the cerebellum in the chick embryo (n = 144) under a uniform SMF (20 mT). All of our observations were done on folium VIc of Larsell's classification. The cerebella of chick embryos, which were exposed solely on day 6 of incubation and sacrificed at day 13 of incubation [short exposure (S)1; n = 24], showed an external granular layer (EGL) that was less dense than the EGL in the control group (n = 24). The molecular layer (ML) exhibited a low number of migratory neuroblastic elements. Moreover, the internal granular layer (IGL) was immature, with the cellular elements less abundant and more dispersed than in controls. In chick embryos exposed on day 6 of incubation and sacrificed at day 17 (S2; n = 24), the outstanding feature was the regeneration of the different layers of the cerebellar cortex. The cerebellar cortex of chick embryos exposed continuously to an identical field from the beginning of the incubation up to day 13 [long exposure (L)1; n = 24] or day 17 (L2; n = 24) of incubation showed a higher number of alterations than that of group S1. Electron microscopy confirmed the findings from light microscopy and, at the same time, showed clear signs of cell degeneration and delay in the process of neuronal differentiation. This was more apparent in groups L1 (100%) and L2 (100%) than in groups S1 (95.4%) and S2 (65.2%). In conclusion, the present study showed that SMF can induce irreversible developmental effects on the processes of cell migration and differentiation of the chick cerebellar cortex. 

13. Flipo D, Fournier M, Benquet C, Roux P, Le Boulaire C, Pinsky C, LaBella FS, Krzystyniak K. Increased apoptosis, changes in intracellular Ca2+, and functional alterations in lymphocytes and macrophages after in vitro exposure to static magnetic field. J Toxicol Environ Health 1998 May 8;54(1):63-76 

Abstract:
Electromagnetic-related alteration of cellular functions is well documented for extremely low-frequency low-energy pulsing electromagnetic fields (ELF-EMF). In this study we examined the in vitro effects of static magnetic fields (SMF) on the cellular immune parameters of the C57BI/6 murine macrophages, spleen lymphocytes, and thymic cells. The cells were exposed in vitro for 24 h at 37 degrees C, 5% CO2, to 250-1500 G SMF. Exposure to the SMF resulted in the decreased phagocytic uptake of fluorescent latex microspheres, which was accompanied by an increased intracellular Ca2+ level in macrophages. Exposure to SMF decreased mitogenic responses in lymphocytes, as determined by incorporation of [3H]thymidine into the cells. This was associated with the increased Ca2+ influx in concanavalin A-stimulated lymphocytes. Furthermore, exposure to SMF produced markedly increased apoptosis of thymic cells, as determined by flow cytometry. Overall, in vitro exposure of immunocompetent cells to 250-1500 G SMF altered several functional parameters of C57BI/6 murine macrophages, thymocytes, and spleen lymphocytes. 

14. Fombeur JP; Koubbi G; Chevalier AM; Mousset C. De l'apport des aimants dans les sequelles des paralysies faciales. Etude clinique [On the contribution of magnets in sequelae of facial paralysis. Preliminary clinical study] Ann Otolaryngol Chir Cervicofac 1988;105(5):397-402 

Abstract:
This trial was designed to evaluate the efficacy of EPOREC 1 500 magnets as an adjuvant to rehabilitation following peripheral facial paralysis. Magnetotherapy is used in many other specialties, and in particular in rheumatology. The properties of repulsion between identical poles were used to decrease the effect of sequelae in the form of contractures on the facial muscles. There were two groups of 20 patients: one group with physiotherapy only and the other with standard rehabilitation together with the use of magnets. These 40 patients had facial paralysis of various origins (trauma, excision of acoustic neuroma, Bell's palsy etc). Obviously all patients had an intact nerve. It was at the time of the development of contractures that magnets could be used in terms of evaluation of their efficacy of action on syncinesiae, contractures and spasticity. Magnets were worn at night for a mean period of six months and results were assessed in terms of disappearance of eye-mouth syncinesiae, and in terms of normality of facial tone. Improvement and total recovery without sequelae were obtained far more frequently in the group which wore magnets, encouraging us to continue along these lines. 

15. Grace KL , Revell WJ , Brookes M. The effects of pulsed electromagnetism on fresh fracture healing: osteochondral repair in the rat femoral groove. Orthopedics 1998 Mar;21(3):297-302 

Abstract:
Some clinical studies have claimed significant reductions in the healing time of fresh fractures with the use of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs). Animal models, however, have produced more equivocal results. This investigation examined the effects of PEMF treatment on an osteochondral defect placed in the patellofemoral groove of the rat. The results indicated that PEMF enhances early vascular reaction and suppresses initial pannus proliferation. Early chondrogenesis and bone formation were consistently stimulated, and the restoration of normal bone trabeculae advanced. Pulsed electromagnetic field treatment therefore may be useful in advancing repair during the early proliferative stage. Later results were variable and suggest that prolonged use may have deleterious effects, enhancing chondrogenesis beyond a point observed in normal repair and thus delaying normal subsurface trabeculation. 

16. Higashi T, Yamagishi A, Takeuchi T, Kawaguchi N, Sagawa S, Onishi S, Date M: Orientation of erythrocytes in a strong static magnetic field. Blood 1993 Aug 15; 82(4):1328-34. 

Abstract:
The frequency of exposure to strong magnetic fields has increased as the magnetic-resonance image-diagnostic technique (MRI) and passenger transport systems based on the principle of magnetic levitation have come into wider use. Accordingly, it has become necessary to more systematically assess their influence on the body and set strict guidelines on acceptable limits of magnetism exposure. Therefore, we have assessed the influence of an uniform static magnetic field (8 T in maximum) on normal erythrocytes. The erythrocytes were oriented with their disk plane parallel to the magnetic field direction. These erythrocytes were influenced even by 1 T and almost 100% of them were oriented when exposed to 4 T. Furthermore, the degree of orientation was not influenced by the state of hemoglobin (oxy: diamagnetic, deoxy and met: paramagnetic). The dependence of the measured degree of orientation on the intensity of the magnetic field was in good agreement with the theoretical equation for the magnetic orientation of diamagnetic substances. As a result of a numerical analysis based on the equation, the anisotropic diamagnetic susceptibility of erythrocytes was found to be delta chi = 8 x 10(-22) electromagnetic units/erythrocyte. It was almost in agreement with calculated value delta chi = 6 x 10(-22) emu/erythrocyte estimated from the diamagnetism of the membrane constituents of erythrocyte. 

17. Hou TZ, Dawitof M, Wang JY, Li MD: Experimental evidence of a plant meridian system. Am J Chin Med 1994; 22(1);1-10. 

Abstract:
Experiments were conducted on the bioelectrical potential and resistance of soybean (Glycine max) roots, stems, leaves and pods. Results showed a higher potential and lower electrical resistance associated with the leaf cushion, main vein and small vein areas in comparison with other parts of the plant. When two needles were inserted into one of the low resistance points, i.e., the leaf cushion area, the electrical resistance decreased 26.0% on the main vein and 4.5% on the mesophyll of the soybean leaf for at least 5 hours after acupuncture. These characteristics, similar to those of meridian transmission lines in humans and other animals, suggest that a meridian system might also exist in plants. 

18. Hyvarinen J, Karlsson M: Low resistance skin points that may coincide with acupuncture loci. Med Biol 1977 Apr; 55(2);88-94. 

Abstract:
Electrical resistance of skin was studied with the aid of a specially designed meter that compared the resistance per surface area of small skin points with that of the surrounding skin. In a systematic study of the hands, face and ears in five subjects low-resistance skin points were repeatedly found in characteristic loci, comparable in different individuals and symmetric about the body midline. The low-resistance skin points had diametres of 1.5 +/- 0.5 mm and their borders were abrupt. On the dry skin resistance values were around 10 kilo-ohms at the center of the points but around 3 mega-ohms in the surrounding skin. Voltages could also be recorded at these points, but they proved to be result of electrode polarization reflected at these points because of their low electrical resistance. The distribution of the low points in the hands, face and ears resembled that of classical acupuncture points. 

19. Indulski JA , Bortkiewicz A , Zmyslony M, Zakladu Fizjologii Pracy i Ergonomii. [The present state of knowledge concerning the effect of electromagnetic fields of 50/60 Hz on the circulatory system and the autonomic nervous system] Med Pr 1997;48(4):441-51 

Abstract:
Diseases of the circulatory system together with neoplastic diseases are recognized as the major health problem in the contemporary world. Their origin and aggravation may be related to the exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMFs) since theoretically, disorders in the functioning of the circulatory system are most likely due to electric impulses generated in it by external magnetic fields. The nervous system, including its autonomic part which regulates, among others, the functioning of the circulatory system, because of its electric nature is another system which may be disturbed by EMFs. From the 1960s, biological studies on the effects of power-line frequency EMFs have been carried out in many countries. In view of the applied study model, four main directions of these studies can be identified: in vitro and in vivo animal experiments, experimental studies on humans, clinical and epidemiological studies. Experimental studies on animals and humans have yielded ambiguous and very often contradictory results. Some of them indicate that EMF contributes to slowing down the cardiac rhythm and the stroke volume of the left ventricle, other results suggest their acceleration, and still other show no differences. The results of clinical studies performed in many countries in different groups of workers exposed to power-line frequency EMFs have not produced the evidence for drawing unequivocal conclusions. Again some studies reveal that those exposed show disorders in neurovegetative and blood pressure regulations (hypotension or hypertension) as well as in cardiac rhythm (bradycardia or tachycardia). Other studies do not confirm harmful effect of EMF on the circulatory system. Therefore, it is not feasible to find out, on the basis of these studies, whether and how chronic exposure to power-line frequency EMFs influences the functioning of the circulatory system, the more so as ECG standard recording has been to date the only diagnostic method, and according to the present state of knowledge it is not sufficient to assess the functioning of the circulatory system. Epidemiological studies play the most important role in the evaluation of health effects of the exposure to power-line frequency EMFs. These studies have been carried out for fifteen years, however, they do not consider the effect of chronic exposure to EMF of 50 Hz frequency on the circulatory system. 

20. Ivanov SG; Smirnov VV; Solov'eva FV; Liashevskaia SP; Selezneva Liu, Magnitoterapiia bol'nykh gipertonicheskoi bolezn'iu. [The magnetotherapy of hypertension patients] Ter Arkh 1990;62(9):71-4

Abstract:
A study was made of the influence of the constant MKM2-1 magnets on patients suffering from essential hypertension. Continuous action of the magnetic field, created by such magnets, on the patients with stage II essential hypertension was noted to result in a decrease of arterial pressure without the occurrence of any side effects and in a simultaneous reduction of the scope of drug administration. Apart from that fact, magnetotherapy was discovered to produce a beneficial effect on the central hemodynamics and microcirculation. The use of the MKM2-1 magnets may be regarded as a feasible method of the treatment of essential hypertension patients at any medical institution. 

21. Jakoubek B, Rohlicek V: Changes of electrodermal properties in the "acupuncture points" on men and rats. Physiol Bohemoslov 1982; 31(2):143-9.

Abstract:
The measurements of skin resistance to electrical current performed in rats and men indicated the occurrence of small skin areas, in which the conductivity for DC and AC was sharply increased. In healthy men, the anatomical localization of these areas of increased skin conductivity (AISC) corresponded to the localization of the so-called "acupuncture points" (AP). In patients, the AISC were also found outside the ordinary AP, mainly in areas of referred pain. The measurements of the size of AISC by multiple electrodes indicated the approximate size of AISC cca 350 microM in the rat, ccs 450 microns in man. The recording of skin conductivity were taken from : a) AISC in man and the rat, b) skin in the close neighbourhood of AISC, c) from the sweating human skin. 

22. Kovacs FM, Gotzens V, Garcia A, Garcia F, Mufraggi N, Prandi D, Setoain J, San Roman F: Experimental study on radioactive pathways of hypodermically injected technetium-99m. J Nucl Med 1992 Mar; 33(3):403-7. 

Abstract:
The objective of this study was to investigate the biological substrate of radioactive pathways of migration of hypodermically injected 99mTc into points of low electrical resistance. Sixteen anesthetized adult male beagles were used. Control and test points were defined by comparing their electrical resistance to that of the pinna. Seventy-three experiments of three different types were performed: (1) separate hypodermic injections of [99mTc] sodium pertechnetate, 201Tl-chloride, 131INa and 99mTc-rhenium sulfide into control and test points; (2) simultaneous injections of [99mTc]sodium pertechnetate and 201Tl chloride into control and test points; and (3) intravascular injections of 99mTcO4 into blood vessels underlying test points. Only the hypodermic injection of 99mTc into points of low electrical resistance gave rise to a specific radioactive pathway characterized by rapid and longitudinal migration, clearly independent of background activity. The specific radioactive pathway detected is not the result of diffusion of the radiotracer through nerves, veins or lymphatic vessels, but its trajectory coincides with that described for one of the acupuncture meridians in the dog. 

23. Kupriianova TA; Markov BP; Vilkova LA; Barabash AG. Ispol'zovanie postoiannogo magnitnogo polia v kompleksnom lechenii krasnogo ploskogo lishaia slizistoi obolochki polosti rta. [The use of a permanent magnetic field in the combined treatment of lichen ruber planus of the oral mucosa] Stomatologiia (Mosk) 1989 Sep-Oct;68(5):33-4

Abstract:
n 51 patients, the conventional therapy was combined with application of plate prostheses with samarium-cobalt magnets. Clinical investigations showed a beneficial effect of the constant magnetic field on the inflammation relief, erosion epithelialization and papules disappearing from the oral cavity. 

24. Lee EW , Maffulli N , Li CK , Chan KM . Pulsed magnetic and electromagnetic fields in experimental achilles tendonitis in the rat: a prospective randomized stuly. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997 Apr;78(4):399- 

Abstract:
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of pulsed magnetic fields (PMF) and pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) on healing in experimental Achilles tendon inflammation in the rat. DESIGN: Prospective randomized trial. SETTING: University medical school. METHODS: Exposure of the Achilles tendon and injury by a weight of 98.24 g falling from a height of 35cm in 180 male Sprague-Dawley rats. INTERVENTION: A daily 15-minute session with PMF of 17Hz or 50Hz, or PEMF of 15Hz or 46Hz, or a sham session. OUTCOME MEASURES: Random sacrifice 2 hours after the operation, and at 1, 3, 7, 14, or 28 days. Assessment of water content, weight, and histological appearance of the tendons. RESULTS: The time from injury and the various treatment modalities exerted a significant influence on the water content of the tendon after the injury (two-way ANOVA, p = .02). At day 3, the water content of the PEMF 46Hz group was significantly higher than in the other groups, decreasing sharply by day 7, and being similar to the other groups thereafter. By the end of the experiment, the PEMF 15Hz group was not significantly different from the control group. At day 7, the PMF 50Hz group showed significantly lower water content than the control group (p = .03), but at 14 days the PMF 50Hz group was not significantly different from the control group. PMF 50Hz suppressed the extravascular edema during early inflammation. PMF 17Hz showed a similar initial trend, producing a consistent lower water content throughout the experiment, reaching statistical significance by the end of treatment. By the end of the experiment, the collagen fibers had nearly regained their normal alignment in all groups, with a more physiological alignment seen in the PEMF 17Hz group. CONCLUSIONS: The tendon returned to histological normality in all groups, but the PMF 17Hz group showed better collagen alignment by the end of the study. PMF 17Hz resulted in a greater reduction of inflammation, with a better return of the tendon to histological normality. Different PMF and PEMF could be applied according to when treatment is started after the injury. If there is no delay between injury and beginning of pulsed magnetic treatment, PMF 17 should be used. 

25. Levin M; Ernst SG. Applied DC magnetic fields cause alterations in the time of cell divisions and developmental abnormalities in early sea urchin embryos. Bioelectromagnetics 1997;18(3):255-63 

Abstract: 

Most work on magnetic field effects focuses on AC fields. The present study demonstrates that exposure to medium-strength (10 mT-0.1 T) static magnetic fields can alter the early embryonic development of two species of sea urchin embryos. Batches of fertilized eggs from two species of urchin were exposed to fields produced by permanent magnets. Samples of the continuous cultures were scored for the timing of the first two cell divisions, time of hatching, and incidence of exogastrulation. It was found that static fields delay the onset of mitosis in both species by an amount dependent on the exposure timing relative to fertilization. The exposure time that caused the maximum effect differed between the two species. Thirty millitesla fields, but not 15 mT fields, caused an eightfold increase in the incidence of exogastrulation in Lytechinus pictus, whereas neither of these fields produced exogastrulation in Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. 

26. Liu H, Abbott J, Bee JA: Pulsed electromagnetic fields influence hyaline cartilage extracellular matrix composition without affecting molecular structure. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 1996 Mar; 4(1):63-76. 

Abstract: 

Pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) influence the extracellular matrix metabolism of a diverse range of skeletal tissues. This study focuses upon the effect of PEMF on the composition and molecular structure of cartilage proteoglycans. Sixteen-day-old embryonic chick sterna were explanted to culture and exposed to a PEMF for 3 h/day for 48 h. PEMF treatment did not affect the DNA content of explants but stimulated elevation of glycosaminoglycan content in the explant and conserved the tissue's histological integrity. The glycosaminoglycans in sterna exposed to PEMF were indistinguishable from those in controls in their composition of chondroitin sulfate resulting from chondroitinase ABC digestion. Specific examination with [35S]-sulfate labels showed that PEMF treatment significantly suppressed both the degradation of pre-existing glycosaminoglycans biosynthetically labeled in ovo and the synthesis of new [35S]-sulfated glycosaminoglycans. The average size and aggregating ability of pre-existing and newly synthesized [35S]-sulfated proteoglycans extracted with 4 M guanidinium chloride from PEMF-treated cartilage explants were identical to controls. The chain length and degree of sulfation of [35S]-sulfated glycosaminoglycans also were identical in control and PEMF-treated cultures. PEMF treatment also reduced the amount of both unlabeled glycosaminoglycans and labeled pre-existing and newly synthesized [35S]-sulfated glycosaminoglycans recovered from the nutrient media. [35S]-Sulfated proteoglycans released to the media of both control and PEMF-treated cultures were mostly degradation products although their glycosaminoglycan chain size was unchanged. These results demonstrate that exposure of embryonic chick cartilage explants to PEMF for 3 h/day maintains a balanced proteoglycan composition by down-regulating its turnover without affecting either molecular structure or function. 

27. Liu H , Lees P , Abbott J , Bee JA. Pulsed electromagnetic fields preserve proteoglycan composition of extracellular matrix in embryonic chick sternal cartilage. Biochim Biophys Acta 1997 Aug 29;1336(2):303-14 

Abstract: 

The influence of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) on proteoglycan composition in cartilage extracellular matrix has been investigated. Day 16 embryonic chick sternal cartilage was explanted to culture and exposed for 3 h per day for 2 days to a repetitive single-pulse PEMF with frequency of 15 Hz and peak magnetic field of 1.25 G. PEMF treatment did not affect cell proliferation, as indicated by [3H]thymidine incorporation, but significantly stimulated the retention of glycosaminoglycans in the explants and reduced the release of glycosaminoglycans into the media. Determination of incorporation of [35S]sulfate and [3H]N-acetylglucosamine into proteoglycans in vitro and breakdown of in ovo labelled [35S]sulfated proteoglycans in vitro showed that PEMF treatment significantly suppressed the synthesis of proteoglycans and the degradation of both newly synthesized and pre-existing proteoglycans. Sepharose CL-2B chromatography demonstrated that PEMF did not affect either the size distribution of newly synthesized and pre-existing [35S]sulfated proteoglycans or their ability to aggregate with hyaluronate. Sepharose CL-6B chromatography followed by cellulose acetate electrophoresis revealed that the chain length and degree of sulfation of [35S]sulfated glycosaminoglycans were identical in control and PEMF-treated cultures. It is concluded that PEMF treatment preserved extracellular matrix integrity of cultured cartilage explants by down-regulating proteoglycan synthesis and degradation in a co-ordinated manner without affecting their gross structural nature. 

28. Lud GV; Demeckiy AM. Use of permanent magnetic field in reconstructive surgery of the main arteries (experimental study). Acta Chir Plast 1990;32(1):28-34 

Abstract:
To achieve better results in reconstructive surgery on the main arteries using venous graft, the authors used a permanent magnetic field from different sources: elastic magnets with external effect and absorbable magnets implanted into the surgical wound. This physical source was found to possess the following effects: stimulation of the central and peripheral blood flow, hypercoagulation prevention, reduction on oedema and inflammation. The restored specific properties of these magnetic sources should be taken into account in the selection and use during the postoperative period. 

29. McLean MJ , Holcomb RR , Wamil AW , Pickett JD , Cavopol AV. Blockade of sensory neuron action potentials by a static magnetic field in the 10 mT range. Bioelectromagnetics 1995;16(1):20-32

Abstract:
To characterize the inhibitory effect of a static magnetic field, action potentials (AP) were elicited by intracellular application of 1 ms depolarizing current pulses of constant amplitude to the somata of adult mouse dorsal root ganglion neurons in monolayer dissociated cell culture. During the control period, < 5% of stimuli failed to elicit AP. During exposure to an approximately 11 mT static magnetic field at the cell position produced by an array of four permanent center-charged neodymium magnets of alternating polarity (MAG-4A), 66% of stimuli failed to elicit AP. The number of failures was maximal after about 200- 250 s in the field and returned gradually to baseline over 400-600 s. A direct or indirect effect one conformation of AP generating sodium channels could account for these results because 1) failure was preceded often by reduction of maximal rate of rise, an indirect measure of sodium current; 2) recovery was significantly prolonged in more than one-half of neurons that were not stimulated during exposure to the MAG-4A field; and 3) resting membrane potential, input resistance, and chronaxie were unaffected by the field. The effect was diminished or prevented by moving the MAG-4A array along the X or Z axis away from the neuron under study and by increasing the distance between magnets in the XY plane. Reduction of AP firing during exposure to the approximately 0.1 mT field produced by a MAG-4A array of micromagnets was about the same as that produced by a MAG-4A array of the large magnets above. The approximately 28 mT field produced at cell position by two magnets of alternating polarity and the approximately 88 mT field produced by a single magnet had no significant effect on AP firing. These findings suggest that field strength alone cannot account for AP blockade. 

30. Mentes BB , Tascilar O , Tatlicioglu E , Bor MV , Isman F , Turkozkan N , Celebi M Influence of pulsed electromagnetic fields on healing of experimental colonic anastomosis. Dis Colon Rectum 1996 Sep;39(9): 1031-8 

Abstract:
PURPOSE: The study investigated the influence of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) on the mechanical strength and collagen content of uncomplicated colonic anastomosis in rats. METHODS: A standardized left colonic resection was performed 3 cm above the peritoneal reflection, and end-to-end anastomosis was constructed with eight interrupted inverting sutures. Beginning immediately after surgery, randomly assigned groups were exposed to one of the following: 1) 100 Hz (frequency), 1 mT (intensity) PEMFs with 16-hour on/8-hour off cycles (n = 8); 2) 100 Hz, 2 mT PEMFs with 16-hour on/8-hour off cycles (n = 8); 3) 100 Hz, 1 mT PEMFs with 6-hour on/6-hour off cycles (n = 6), whereas the control group (n = 10) received no PEMFs. Relaparatomy was performed at 72 hours postoperatively, and the bursting pressure of the anastomotic segment was recorded in situ. The hydroxyproline contents of the anastomotic and adjacent perianastomotic segments of equal lengths were determined. RESULTS: Mean bursting pressure values of the groups that received 100 Hz, 1 or 2 mT PEMFs with 16-hour on/8-hour off cycles (90.88 +/- 19.13 and 83.88 +/- 7.08 mmHg, respectively) were significantly higher than those of the control group (61.66 +/- 10.6 mmHg) and the group with 6-hour on/6-hour off cycles (64.83 +/- 7.36 mmHg; P < 0.05 for all comparisons). Hydroxyproline contents of the anastomotic and perianastomotic segments were consistently higher in the 16-hour on/8-hour off PEMF groups, compared with those of the corresponding segments of the control group. CONCLUSIONS: PEMFs applied externally to unrestrained rats within a "window of PEMF parameters" provided a significant gain in the mechanical strength of the colonic anastomosis, at least 72 hours post-operatively. Associated relative increases in the hydroxyproline contents of the (peri)anastomotic colonic segments suggest that an altered collagen metabolism might contribute to this enhancement of the anastomotic repair. Further investigations based on these preliminary data and the definition of the exact measures regarding the effects of PEMFs on biologic systems, in general, may lead to an efficient and new adjunctive modality in colorectal surgery. 

31. Nordenstrom Bjorn EW: Biologically Closed Electrical Circuits. Stockholm, Nordic Medical Publications, 1983. 

32. Oleson TD, Kroening RJ, Bresler DE: An experimental evaluation of auricular diagnosis: the somatotopic mapping of musculoskeletal pain at ear acupuncture points. Pain 1980 Apr; 8(2):217-29. 

Abstract:
The present study was designed to experimentally evaluate the claims by French and Chinese acupuncturists that a somatotopic mapping of the body is represented upon the external ear. According to this system of diagnosis, areas of the auricle where there is increased electrical conductivity and heightened tenderness to touch correspond to specific areas of the body where there is some pathological condition. The hypothetical map of different bodily regions appears on the external ear as an inverted fetus, with the head represented towards the lower lobule, the hands and feet represented at the uppermost portion of the auricle, and the body in between. Forty patients were medically examined to determine areas of their body where there was musculoskeletal pain. Each patient was then draped with a sheet to conceal any visible physical problems. The physician conducting the auricular diagnosis had no prior knowledge of the patient's medical condition, but simply examined the patient's ear for areas of elevated skin conductivity or tenderness. The concordance between the established medical diagnosis and the auricular diagnoses was 75.2%. Both quantified readings of electrical current flow and subjective ratings of dermal tenderness were statistically significant in arriving at accurate diagnoses. These results thus support the hypothesis that there is a somatotopic organization of the bodi represented upon the human auricle. 

33. Patino O , Grana D , Bolgiani A , Prezzavento G , Merlo A. [Effect of magnetic fields on skin wound healing. Experimental study] Medicina (B Aires) 1996;56(1):41-4 

Abstract: 
Although there are many publications on the usefulness of magneto-therapy, discrepancies exist about the utility of electromagnetic fields in skin wound healing. The objective of this work was to study the effect of electromagnetic fields on wound healing in rats. Thirty six male Wistar rats were used; a rectangular lesion was made in the back of each animal (4.2 cm x 2.3 cm). They were divided into 3 groups: group C (control) with sham treatment; group C50, treated with continuous electromagnetic fields of 5 mT (50 Gauss) and group P200, treated with pulsed electromagnetic fields of 20 mT (200 G). The treatments were of 30 minutes a day during 21 days. The corporal weights (Table 1) and the wound longitudinal and transversal maximal axis (Figures 1, 2) were weekly recorded and the data was evaluated by analysis of variance. On day 14, the P200 group showed the maximal longitudinal axis which was smaller than that of group C (p < 0.01). On day 21 in both treated groups the maximal longitudinal axis was smaller than that of group C (p < 0.01); besides the axis was smaller in the P200 group than in the C50 group (p < 0.05). No statistical differences were observed in the remaining data. The results showed a facilitating effect of electromagnetic fields on wound healing in rats. Pulsed electromagnetic fields seem to have a precocious and larger healing effect than continuous electromagnetic fields. 

34. Patino O , Grana D , Bolgiani A , Prezzavento G , Mino J , Merlo A , Benaim F. Pulsed electromagnetic fields in experimental cutaneous wound healing in rats. J Burn Care Rehabil 1996 Nov-Dec;17(6 Pt 1):528-31 

Abstract: 
Electromagnetic fields are now being used in many diseases such as osseous, ligamental, cartilaginous, or nervous reparation, diabetes, and myocardial or cerebral ischemia. Although many publications show the usefulness of magneto-therapy, discrepancies exist about the utility of electromagnetic fields in skin wound healing. The objective of this work was to study the effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields on wound healing in rats. Twenty-two male Wistar rats were used; a circular lesion was made in the back of each animal. They were divided into three groups: group C (control) with sham treatment (n = 8), group NF, treated with topical nitrofurazone solution (n = 7), and group PEMF, treated with pulsed electromagnetic fields of 20 mT (n = 7). The treatments were 35 minutes twice a day. The absolute and relative values of the area and perimeter of the wounds showed significantly lower values in the PEMF group at days 7, 14, and 21 compared with those in group C (p < 0.01, analysis of variance), whereas the PEMF group showed significantly lower values at day 21 only compared with the NF group (p < 0.01, analysis of variance). The results suggest a significant beneficial stimulation in the wound healing process in rats treated with PEMF, which could lead to the development of a practical tool for research and clinical use. 

35. Raylman RR , Clavo AC , Wahl RL. Exposure to strong static magnetic field slows the growth of human cancer cells in vitro. Bioelectromagnetics 1996;17(5):358-63

Abstract: 
Proposals to enhance the amount of radiation dose delivered to small tumors with radioimmunotherapy by constraining emitted electrons with very strong homogeneous static magnetic fields has renewed interest in the cellular effects of prolonged exposures to such fields. Past investigations have not studied the effects on tumor cell growth of lengthy exposures to very high magnetic fields. Three malignant human cell lines, HTB 63 (melanoma), HTB 77 IP3 (ovarian carcinoma), and CCL 86 (lymphoma: Raji cells), were exposed to a 7 Tesla uniform static magnetic field for 64 hours. Following exposure, the number of viable cells in each group was determined. In addition, multicycle flow cytometry was performed on all cell lines, and pulsed-field electrophoresis was performed solely on Raji cells to investigate changes in cell cycle patterns and the possibility of DNA fragmentation induced by the magnetic field. A 64 h exposure to the magnetic field produced a reduction in viable cell number in each of the three cell lines. Reductions of 19.04 +/- 7.32%, 22.06 +/- 6.19%, and 40.68 +/- 8.31% were measured for the melanoma, ovarian carcinoma, and lymphoma cell lines, respectively, vs. control groups not exposed to the magnetic field. Multicycle flow cytometry revealed that the cell cycle was largely unaltered. Pulsed-field electrophoresis analysis revealed no increase in DNA breaks related to magnetic field exposure. In conclusion, prolonged exposure to a very strong magnetic field appeared to inhibit the growth of three human tumor cell lines in vitro. The mechanism underlying this effect has not, as yet, been identified, although alteration of cell growth cycle and gross fragmentation of DNA have been excluded as possible contributory factors. Future investigations of this phenomenon may have a significant impact on the future understanding and treatment of cancer. 

36. Reichmanis M, Becker RO: Physiological effects of stimulation at acupuncture loci: a review. Comp Med East West 1978 Spring: 6(1):67-73. 

Abstract: 
Recent studies reporting significant physiological effects associated with electrical and manual stimulation at several traditional Chinese acupuncture loci are reviewed. Other reports on the anatomy and electrical properties (DC resistance and potential, AC impedance) of these sites indicate that many are significant local skin resistance minima and may also be points of locally more positive DC potential. Further investigation of the basic properties of the acupuncture system and its mode of action is fully warranted by these preliminary findings. 

37. Reichmanis M , Marino AA , Becker RO. D.C. skin conductance variation at acupuncture loci. Am J Chin Med 1976 Spring;4(1):69-72 

Abstract: 
Skin conductance was measured in 10 subjects with a DC Wheatstone bridge in 10 areas purportedly containing acupuncture loci on the Triple Burner (TB) and Lung (Lu) meridians. When the results were compared to those from anatomically similar locations devoid of acupuncture loci, local conductance variation was found to be significantly different (p less than 0.05) in most acupuncture locus locations. 

38. Richards TL, Lappin MS, Acosta-Urquidi J, Kraft GH, Heide AC, Lawrie FW, Merrill TE, Melton GB, Cunningham CA: Double-blind study of pulsing magnetic field effects on multiple sclerosis. J Altern Complement Med 1997 Spring; 3(1):21-9. 

Abstract: 
We performed a double-blind study to measure the clinical and subclinical effects of an alternative medicine magnetic device on disease activity in multiple sclerosis (MS). The MS patients were exposed to a magnetic pulsing device (Enermed) where the frequency of the magnetic pulse was in the 4-13 Hz range (50-100 milliGauss). A total of 30 MS patients wore the device on preselected sites between 10 and 24 hours a day for 2 months. Half of the patients (15) randomly received an Enermed device that was magnetically inactive and the other half received an active device. Each MS patient received a set of tests to evaluate MS disease status before and after wearing the Enermed device. The tests included (1) a clinical rating (Kurtzke, EDSS), (2) patient-reported performance scales, and (3) quantitative ectroencephalography (QEEG) during a language task. Although there was no significant change between pretreatment and posttreatment in the EDSS scale, there was a significant improvement in the performance scale (PS) combined rating for bladder control, cognitive function, fatigue level, mobility, spasticity, and vision (active group -3.83 +/- 1.08, p < 0.005; placebo group -0.17 +/- 1.07, change in PS scale). There was also a significant change between pretreatment and posttreatment in alpha EEG magnitude during the language task recorded at various electrode sites on the left side. In this double-blind, placebo-controlled study, we have demonstrated a statistically significant effect of the Enermed magnetic pulsing device on patient performance scales and on alpha EEG magnitude during a language task. 

39. Rowbottom Margaret and Susskind Charles: Electricity and Medicine - History of Their Interaction. San Francisco; San Francisco Press, Inc., 1984. 

40. Saku K, Mukaino Y, Ying H, Arakawa K: Characteristics of reactive electropermeable points on the auricles of coronary heart disease patients. Clin Cardiol 1993 May; 16 (5):415-419. 

Abstract:
In oriental medicine there is a hypothesis related to acupuncture that the auricle is a projection of the functional anatomy of the whole human body. In this study reactive electropermeable points (REPP), that is, points on the skin with low electrical resistance, on the auricle were measured on patients with coronary heart disease using a neurometer LC-M. Our findings correlated positively with the particular points--heart I (shin) and heart II (shinzo)*--named by the Chinese group as being related to the functional anatomy of the heart. The incidence of positive REPP test results at the shin and shinzo points for subjects with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) were extremely high, and positive test results for patients with old myocardial infarction (OMI) and angina pectoris (AP) were also significant. There was no significant difference in the incidence rates of REPP at the shin and shinzo points between the OMI and AP groups. High incidence of positive REPP test results at the lung and heart III (shinyu) points occurred only in the AMI group, and this was significantly high when compared with the control group. 

41. Sarma GR, Subrahmanyam S, Deenabandhu A, Babu CR, Madhivathanan S, Kesavaraj N. Exposure to pulsed magnetic fields in the treatment of plantar ulcers in leprosy patients--a pilot, randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial. Indian J Lepr 1997 Jul-Sep;69(3):241-50 

Abstract:
A pilot, randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trial to study the effect of exposure to pulsed magnetic fields (PMF) on the rate of healing of plantar ulcers in leprosy patients was undertaken. Twenty patients were randomly allocated to receive standard wound-care treatment (controls) and 20 others received standard treatment plus exposure to PMF (sinusoidal form, 0.95 to 1.05 Hz, amplitude +/- 2400 nano Teslas) (study group) for four weeks. Assessment of the outcome of treatment was based on the volume of ulcers, calculated from the maximal length, breadth and depth of the ulcer recorded on the day of admission, at one and two weeks and at the end of treatment. The analysis of the results was based on 15 control patients and 18 PMF patients after deletion of four patients due to irregularity in attendance and three others on account of suspected malignancy of the ulcers. In the control group, the geometric mean volumes of the ulcers were 2843 and 1478 cu mm on the day of admission and at the end of the treatment (P = 0.03); the corresponding values in the PMF group were 2428 and 337 cu mm, respectively (P < 0.001). A decrease in the volume of 40% or more was observed in 53% of control patients and 89% of PMF patients (P = 0.02); a decrease of 80% or more was observed in none of the controls and in 33% of PMF patients. These findings strongly suggest that exposure to PMF causes a significantly more rapid healing of plantar ulcers in leprosy patients. 

42. Trock DH, Bollet AJ, Dyer RH Jr, Fielding LP, Miner WK, Markoll R: A double-blind trial of the clinical effects of pulsed electromagnetic fields in osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol 1993 Mar; 20(3):456-60. 

Abstract: 
OBJECTIVE. Further evaluation of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF), which have been observed to produce numerous biological effects, and have been used to treat delayed union fractures for over a decade. METHODS. In a pilot, double-blind randomized trial, 27 patients with osteoarthritis (OA), primarily of the knee, were treated with PEMF. Treatment consisted of 18 half-hour periods of exposure over about 1 month in a specially designed noncontact, air-coil device. Observations were made on 6 clinical variables at baseline, midpoint of therapy, end of treatment and one month later; 25 patients completed treatment. RESULTS. An average improvement of 23-61% occurred in the clinical variables observed with active treatment, while 2 to 18% improvement was observed in these variables in placebo treated control patients. No toxicity was observed. CONCLUSION. The decreased pain and improved functional performance of treated patients suggests that this configuration of PEMF has potential as an effective method of improving symptoms in patients with OA. This method warrants further clinical investigation. 

43. Ubeda A , Diaz-Enriquez M , Martinez-Pascual MA , Parreno A. Hematological changes in rats exposed to weak electromagnetic fields. Life Sci 1997;61(17):1651-6 

Abstract: 
A number of experimental studies report that biological systems can be affected by in vivo exposure to low frequency and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields. However, attempts to independently replicate some of these studies have shown the reported effects to be elusive. The difficulty in replicating results could be due to unidentified physical and/or biological parameters which may affect the response of a sample to electromagnetic fields. The present paper reports a failure to independently replicate a study showing that in vivo exposure to a pulsed magnetic field of 1.5 mT caused significant changes on plasma proteins in rats. Although the possibility has to be considered that the results from the seminal work were artifactual, substantial differences in levels of plasma proteins were observed between the control groups of the two studies indicating that the animals in the first study had an infectious illness. This observation supports the hypothesis that the state of physiological equilibrium of a biological system is crucial to its response to a potentially effective electromagnetic field. 

44. Vallbona C, Hazelwood CF, Jurida G: Response of pain to static magnetic fields in post polio patients: a double- blind pilot study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997 Nov; 8(11):1200-3. 

Abstract: 
OBJECTIVE: To determine if the chronic pain frequently presented by postpolio patients can be relieved by application of magnetic fields applied directly over an identified pain trigger point. DESIGN: Double- blind randomized clinical trial. SETTING: The postpolio clinic of a large rehabilitation hospital. PATIENTS: Fifty patients with diagnosed postpolio syndrome who reported muscular or arthritic-like pain. INTERVENTION: Application of active or placebo 300 to 500 Gauss magnetic devices to the affected area for 45 minutes. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Score on the McGill Pain Questionnaire. RESULTS: Patients who received the active device experienced an average pain score decrease of 4.4 +/- 3.1 (p < .0001) on a 10-point scale. Those with the placebo devices experienced a decrease of 1.1 +/- 1.6 points (p < .005). The proportion of patients in the active-device group who reported a pain score decrease greater than the average placebo effect was 76%, compared with 19% in the placebo-device group (p < .0001). CONCLUSIONS: The application of a device delivering static magnetic fields of 300 to 500 Gauss over a pain trigger point results in significant and prompt relief of pain in postpolio subjects. 

45. Vincent C, Lewith G: Placebo controls for acupuncture studies. J R Soc Med 1995 Apr; 88(4):199-202. 

Abstract:
Many studies of acupuncture treatment are seriously flawed by methodological problems. Poor design, inadequate measures and statistical analysis, lack of follow-up data and sub-standard treatment are all too common. However, the major problem, which many investigators consider to be still unresolved, is the definition of an appropriate placebo control. The use of inappropriate placebo controls has bedeviled acupuncture research and led to serious misinterpretation of the results of clinical trials. While a number of different solutions have been proposed there is, as yet, no agreed way of assessing the adequacy of control conditions or of deciding which placebo to use in a particular trial. We propose that assessing the credibility of treatments and control conditions may provide a way forward to a more rigorous, consensus approach. 

46. Weinberger A, Nyska A, Giler S: Treatment of experimental inflammatory synovitis with continuous magnetic field. Isr J Med Sci 1996 Dec: 32(12):1197-201. 

Abstract:
The effect of a magnetic field on synovitis in rats was studied. Synovitis was induced by bilateral intraarticular injection of zymosan to the hind joints. One group of rats was held in a cage with a magnet of 3,800 Gauss on the bottom of the cage (treated), while another group was held in a cage without a magnet (control). Three weeks following intraarticular zymosan injection all rats were killed and the hind joints tissues were examined histologically. The pathologic process was noted and graded according to the involvement of various tissue components, number of inflammatory foci, and size of the lesion. The histologic findings of the tissues from the control group consisted of marked articular infiltrate, composed of lymphocytes and plasma cells with some histocytes in 80% of the animals. A small articular infiltration of the same nature was observed in 20% of the treated rats. The inflammatory score was 3.4 +/- 1.1 in the treated animals and 6.8 +/- 2.6 in the control group (P = 0.002). These data showed that synovitis and the inflammatory process are significantly suppressed by a magnetic field. 

47. Weintraub MI: Chronic submaximal magnetic stimulation in peripheral neuropathy. American Journal of Pain Management 1998; 12-16. 

48. Weintraub MI: Magnetic bio-stimulation in painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: A novel intervention - a randomized, double placebo-crossover study. American Journal of Pain Management 1999; 9:8-17. 

49. Whitaker Julian and Adderly Brenda: The Pain Relief Breakthrough. Boston; Little, Brown and Company, 1998. 

50. Zizic TM, Hoffman KC, Holt PA, Hungerford DS, OÕDell JR, Jacobs MA, Lewis CG, Deal CL, Caldwell JR, Cholewczynski JG, et al: The treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee with pulsed electrical stimulation. J Rheumatol 1995 Sep; 22(9):1757-61. 

Abstract:
OBJECTIVE. The safety and effectiveness of pulsed electrical stimulation was evaluated for the treatment of osteoarthritis (OA) of the knee. METHODS. A multicenter, double blind, randomized, placebo controlled trial that enrolled 78 patients with OA of the knee incorporated 3 primary efficacy variables of patients' pain, patients' function, and physician global evaluation of patients' condition, and 6 secondary variables that included duration of morning stiffness, range of motion, knee tenderness, joint swelling, joint circumference, and walking time. Measurements were recorded at baseline and during the 4 week treatment period. RESULTS. Patients treated with the active devices showed significantly greater improvement than the placebo group for all primary efficacy variables in comparisons of mean change from baseline to the end of treatment (p < 0.05). Improvement of > or = 50% from baseline was demonstrated in at least one primary efficacy variable in 50% of the active device group, in 2 variables in 32%, and in all 3 variables in 24%. In the placebo group improvement of > or = 50% occurred in 36% for one, 6% for 2, and 6% for 3 variables. Mean morning stiffness decreased 20 min in the active device group and increased 2 min in the placebo group (p < 0.05). No statistically significant differences were observed for tenderness, swelling, or walking time. CONCLUSION. The improvements in clinical measures for pain and function found in this study suggest that pulsed electrical stimulation is effective for treating OA of the knee. Studies for long term effects are warranted. 

51. Hoffman RE, Boutros NN, Hu S, Berman RM, Krystal JH, Charney DS: Transcranial magnetic stimulation and auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. Lancet 2000; 355: 1073 - 1075 

Abstract: 
12 patients with schizophrenia and auditory hallucinations received 1 Hz transcranial magnetic stimulation of left temporoparietlal cortex. In a double-blind crossover trial, active stimulation significantly reduced hallucinations relative to sham stimulation. 

52. Collacott EA, Zimmerman JT, White DW, Rindone JP: Bipolar Permanent Magnets for the Treatment of Chronic Low Back Pain - A Pilot Study. JAMA. 2000;283:1322-1325 

Abstract: 
Chronic low back pain is one of the most prevalent and costly medical conditions in the United States. Permanent magnets have become a popular treatment for various musculoskeletal conditions, including low back pain, despite little scientific support for therapeutic benefit. Objective To compare the effectiveness of 1 type of therapeutic magnet, a bipolar permanent magnet, with a matching placebo device for patients with chronic low back pain. Design Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover pilot study conducted from February 1998 to May 1999. Setting An ambulatory care physical medicine and rehabilitation clinic at a Veterans Affairs hospital. Patients Nineteen men and 1 woman with stable low back pain of a mean of 19 years' duration, with no past use of magnet therapy for low back pain. Twenty patients were determined to provide 80% power in the study at P<.05 to detect a difference of 2 points (the difference believed to be clinically significant) on a visual analog scale (VAS). Interventions For each patient, real and sham bipolar permanent magnets were applied, on alternate weeks, for 6 hours per day, 3 days per week for 1 week, with a 1-week washout period between the 2 treatment weeks. Main Outcome Measures Pretreatment and posttreatment pain intensity on a VAS; sensory and affective components of pain on the Pain Rating Index (PRI) of the McGill Pain Questionnaire; and range of motion (ROM) measurements of the lumbosacral spine, compared by real vs sham treatment. Results Mean VAS scores declined by 0.49 (SD, 0.96) points for real magnet treatment and by 0.44 (SD, 1.4) points for sham treatment (P = .90). No statistically significant differences were noted in the effect between real and sham magnets with any of the other outcome measures (ROM, P = .66; PRI, P = .55). Conclusions Application of 1 variety of permanent magnet had no effect on our small group of subjects with chronic low back pain.

53. Munro, Margaret: Magnetism may prevent malaria deaths-Disease kills 2.7M per year. National Post Tuesday, April 04, 2000 

Magnetism appears to send malaria parasites for a deadly spin, say researchers who may have come up with a new way to control one of the worst killers on the planet. A Seattle team has shown that the parasites lose vigour and die when exposed to oscillating magnetic fields. The fields appear to make tiny iron-containing particles inside the parasite shake and spin, according to the scientists who envision treating malaria patients with such fields. "It would be very easy. People could come to the room and sit and read or whatever while they're being treated. Or you could set it up in the back of a big transport truck, then drive from village to village to treat people," says Henry Lai, a bioengineer at the University of Washington. "If further studies confirm our findings and their application in animals and people, this would be an inexpensive and simple way to treat a disease that affects 500 million people every year," says Lai. The emergence of drug-resistant malaria parasites in the past 20 years has created a huge obstacle to controlling this disease that kills about 2.7 million people each year, one million of them children. Lai doubts the parasite could develop resistance to magnetic fields. Malaria is spread by female mosquitoes. In people, the tiny parasites invade the liver, then re-emerge into the bloodstream and attack red blood cells causing fever, uncontrolled shivering, aches in the joints and headaches. Infected blood cells can block blood vessels to the brain, causing seizures and death. Lai and his colleagues exposed Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest of the four malaria parasite species, to a weak, alternating, or oscillating, magnetic field. Exposed samples ended up with 33% to 70% fewer parasites than unexposed samples. The magnetic fields appear to affect the "heme" molecules that are stacked inside the parasites like "tiny bar magnets,"says Lai. Heme is the iron portion of the haemoglobin molecule left after the parasite eats red blood cells. The alternating magnetic fields likely "shake" the stacked heme molecules, preventing further stacking, says Lai. Existing stacks in the cells are sent into deadly spins, says Lai. "We need to make certain that it won't harm the host. My guess is that it won't," he says. "It's a very weak magnetic field, just a little stronger than the Earth's. The difference is that it is oscillating."